Chapter 5
Predator Avoidance
© 1981 Markus Kappeler
5.1. General
The natural predators of the gibbon in the Ujung Kulon/Gunung
Honje Reserve - with respect to body size - are potentially (1)
leopards, (2) eagles and owls, and (3) pythons. Venomous snakes
(3a) may constitute a danger. A further potential enemy is (4)
man.
Cases of predation on gibbons by natural enemies were,
however, not observed, nor were any individuals which had obviously
been wounded or killed by predators found (observations of this
nature could not be gleaned from the local people (guards etc.)
either); and the gibbon has not been hunted by man in the reserve
for over 10 years.
The behaviour of the gibbon within the framework of
predator avoidance in general, and specifically, towards the
4 potentially dangerous species mentioned above is described
below. It comprises
1. general predator-avoidance behaviour with a preventive
function which is integrated in the daily activity programme,
2. general reactions to disturbing instances (alarm
behaviour), and
3. specific reactions to potentially dangerous animals
and man.
5.2. General predator-avoidance
The risk of direct confrontation with certain potential
predators is reduced a priori by:
1. the exclusivelv arboreal way of life of the gibbon.
The gibbon avoids the ground and its proximity, generally remaining
at a height of over 10 meters above ground, i.e. at a forest
level which is rarely visited by the leopard or python [GRZIMEK,
1973].
2. sleeping and resting in the upper zones of «forest
giants» (trees of 50-70 meters in height).
3. the camouflaging colouring of the fur (especially
effective in the resting position).
The behaviour patterns which serve general predator
avoidance are:
1. General cryptic behaviour. The way of life
of the silvery gibbon is characterized by movements of low intensity
and also by acoustic inconspicuousness.
Exceptions are the female song bouts (chapter 6) and
territorial border conflicts (chapter 7). In these cases, which
involve conspicuous behaviour, the following security measures
are taken:
(a) During the song bouts, which are mostly performed
by the adult female only, the male remains on a lower level and
quietly observes the surroundings. (b) At the end of female song
bouts, as well as of territorial conflicts, the animals leave
the respective part of the forest extremely quietly. (c) Conspicuous
behaviour is immediately interrupted if there is a disturbance.
2. Vigilance. All daily activities are repeatedly
interrupted for short periods of vigilance: The gibbon remains
motionless on the spot, scans the surroundings, and is undoubtedly
also highly alert towards acoustic stimuli.
5.3. General reactions to disturbing
instances
Disturbing instances are:
1. sudden noises or movements which surprise the gibbon,
2. fear/alarm sounds of non-specific animals (uttered
by many forest dwellers such as e.g. macaque, wild pig, giant
squirrel, mouse deer),
3. motionless snakes, leopards, man, as well as other
unknown objects (e.g. fire place, tape recorder).
On being disturbed the gibbon immediately interrupts
its activity and reacts with alarm behaviour.
The following behaviour patterns were observed in
this context:
1. Immediate vertical fliqht. A qibbon which happened
to be relatively near the ground at the time of the disturbance
instantly climbed or swang up towards a higher level of the forest.
2. Directed, exploratory surveillance of the area
of the disturbance. If the gibbon failed to establish the source
of disturbance from its momentary site, it tried to locate it
by moving cautiously to different vantage points.
3. Observation of the discovered instance of disturbance.
Once the source of the disturbance was discovered, the gibbon
observed it attentively and showed readiness for flight.
4. Utterance of hoo notes. Simultaneously with 1.
- 3., the gibbon constantly uttered short hoo notes.
The hoo notes of an individual usually
caused fellow group members in hearing distance to interrupt
their activity, remain on the spot and adopt an attitude of intense
vigilance. Several times it was observed that they, too, recognized
the source of disturbance and reacted with alarm behaviour; in
no case, however, did gibbons immediately show alarm behaviour
in response to the hoo notes.
The following behaviour patterns could be observed
after an alarm:
1. Quieting down. If the disturbance was obviously
of no importance, the gibbon resumed its normal activity. (Examples
of such instances are (1) falling dead branches in the near surroundings,
(2) sudden swift movements of a group member when catching an
insect, (3) the noises of a wild pig foraging.)
2. Remaining quiet and observing, quiet withdrawal,
exploring, harassing, flight. These behaviour patterns occurred
if the disturbing instance was obviously dangerous (snake, bird
of prey, leopard, man; s. section 5.4).
3. Quiet disappearance from the area. If the general
disturbance continued, in spite of exploring the affected area
(examples: fire place, alarm sounds of non-specific animals),
the gibbon as a rule moved to another part of the forest where
it resumed the activity in which it had been engaged before the
interruption, or began a new one.
5.4. Behaviour during disturbance
through non-specifics
5.4.1. Snakes
The behaviour of gibbons towards snakes was ob served
on 4 occasions. One case involved a reticulated python, 3-4 meters
in length, on the ground; in the other 3 cases the snakes were
smaller unidentified specimens in the branches at a height of
15-25 meters. All four snakes were motionless at the moment of
their discovery by the gibbons and did not react to the presence
of the animals.
The behaviour of the gibbon on discovering the snake
was, in all four cases, the same: It immediately interrupted
its activity, uttered hoo notes and, remaining where it was,
closely observed the snake (alarm behaviour).
Then it approached to within 5-10 meters of the snake
and watched it attentively. It changed its location several times,
always however keeping higher than the snake. After some (5-10)
minutes, it finally moved away and unhurriedly left the tree
crown. In no case did the gibbon resume its normal activity in
the same crown, respectively, crown group.
In two of the cases a second group member also remarked
the snake whereupon it behaved in the same way as the individual
which had noted the snake first.
5.4.2. Birds of prey and owls
Of the 15 species of birds of prey
which occur in the reserve [HOOGERWERF, 1970], the following
may be regarded as potential enemies, especially of younger gibbons:
1. Black eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis), 2. White-bellied sea
eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster), 3. Changeable hawk eagle (Spizaetus
cirrhatus), 4. Crested serpent eagle (Spilornis cheela).
Larger species of owls which occur
in the reserve are: 1. Buffy fish owl (Ketupa ketupa), 2. Spotted
wood owl (Strix seloputo). They are wholly resp. partially diurnal
and kill a.o. smaller mammals as e.g. mouse deer which may reach
a weight of 2 kg (personal observation). They may surely therefore
also be considered as predators of younger gibbons.
Observations of encounters between gibbons and owls
are not available so that nothing can be said about the reactions
of the gibbon to these birds.
However, on several occasions gibbons reacted to birds
of prey flying past. Three levels of intensity could be discerned:
1. The gibbon remains where it is, following the bird
of prey with its eyes for a short time and possibly uttering
single hoo notes. It then resumes its previous activity, often
before the bird of prey has disappeared from sight. Gibbons would
usually react in this way to especially high flying eagles, smaller
and medium-sized birds of prey (regardless of their flying height)
and, occasionally, also to passing hornbills.
2. The gibbon crouches ready to flee, utters hoo notes
and observes the bird of prey until it has disappeared from sight.
After a short phase of vigilance, it resumes its normal activity.
This reaction was typical when eagles were passing
by or circling at medium height.
3. The gibbon flees a few meters, stops and observes
the bird of prey while uttering hoo notes. Even after the predator
has disappeared, it still intently watches the sky for a while
before engaging in some normal activity again.
This reaction to low flying, and therefore suddenly
appearing, eagles was shown when the gibbons were at the periphery
of a tree crown. (In two cases this behaviour was also observed
after the sudden appearance of a large hornbill.)
5.4.3. Leopard
On 3 occasions the behaviour of gibbons towards a
leopard was observed. The same behaviour occurred on a 4th occasion;
that it had been elicited by a leopard could only be established
later, on the basis of fresh leopard tracks.
In all interactions the leopard was harassed (in no
case did a gibbon flee after discovering a leopard):
According to their position, the members of the gibbon
group moved upwards or downwards to gather at a vantage point,
some 20-30 meters above ground, from where, apparently, the leopard
could be conveniently observed.
After initially uttered hoo notes, all group members
(including infants carried by their mother) emitted loud screams
at short, irregular intervals and showed bursts of agitated movement
in the area above the predator. A coordination of calls or motion
within the group did not occur.
While screaming, the individual group member remained
temporarily at a vantage point and observed the leopard intently;
then vigorous swings in the branches followed again, however
without leaving the neighbourhood of the predator.
Occasionally one of the group members (mostly the
adult male) swang down to a lower level of the forest (10-15
meters), glanced at the leopard and swang upwards again. These
advances were carried out without vocalization.
On all four occasions, the leopard retreated after
a short time (on two of them the observer had caused its flight).
After 0.5-1 minute, the gibbons stopped their harassing. They
were vigilant for another 2-3 minutes with orientation to the
ground, however quieted down progressively and finally resumed
normal activities.
On the two occasions when the leopard
fled from the observer, 2 resp. 3 gibbon groups in the near surroundings,
through whose home range the leopard apparently moved, also started
harassing.
Harassing as a possible reaction to
predators has also been observed for H.syndactylus [CHIVERS,
1974]; in H.syndactylus, too, all animals of the family group
uttered single screams uncoordinatedly and over a longer time;
however they remained in one place, i.e. were not in motion in
the area above the predator.
On the contrary, in H.l.lar and H.l.agilis
such a reaction to the presence of a predator does not seem to
occur [ELLEFSON, 1967; GITTINS, 1979]; according to ELLEFSON
[1967], family groups of H.l.lar possibly reacted in such cases
with female song bouts (s. chapter 6).
5.4.4. Man
In the observed encounters gibbon/snake on the one
hand, and gibbon/leopard on the other, the reaction of the gibbons
largely showed a constant pattern, and the behaviour was typical
for each of the two cases.
The reactions to passing birds of prey showed different
levels of intensity.
In the reactions to man, a pronounced variability
was observed. 4 main types of reaction - and certain combinations
of these - occurred:
1. Remaining quietly in the branches and observing,
2. Cryptic withdrawal,
3. Swift conspicuous flight through the tree crowns,
4. harassing of man.
A detailed description of these behavioural patterns
is given below. Also the conditions which cause the different
categories of reaction (aspects of the actual situation) and
the function of the different types of reaction are discussed.
The discussion is based on observations of encounters
(1) between gibbons and the observer himself, and (2) between
gibbons and other humans (mostly guards).
a. Remaining quiet
The gibbon remained in its place, motionless and silent,
and observed the human intruder.
This behaviour occurred when (1) the gibbon felt undetected,
and (2) the vegetation offered concealment as protection.
If the gibbon succeeded in remaining undetected, it
would wait until the intruder had moved out of the area, and
then usually resume its previously interrupted activity.
If the human directed his attention to the hiding
gibbon, or protracted his stay in the surroundings, the gibbon
would react immediately resp. after several (3-10) minutes with
flight or harassing.
b. Cryptic withdrawal
In certain cases the gibbon moved away inconspicuously
either (1) to another place where it then remained quietly and
observed the surroundings (and otherwise behaved as described
above), or (2) into an other part of its home range where it
resumed - mostly without delay - its normal activity.
Such inconspicuous withdrawal occurred when there
was an appreciable distance between the gibbon and human, and
the former was in a relatively exposed place.
If, subsequently, the human detected the gibbon and
directed his attention towards the animal, it would react with
flight or harassing.
Basically, therefore, the gibbon shows a tendency
to avoid direct confrontation with man by remaining quiet resp.
cryptic withdrawal. The reactions of harassing and flight which
are more costly in terms of energy only occur if the gibbon sees
that it is being observed and possibly pursued, i.e. if it feels
itself directly threatened.
c. Swift conspicuous flight
Swift flight in the presence of man always took place
at a medium level of the forest (25-30 meters height) where the
conditions of the substrate allowed fast brachiation (s. chapter
3). The fleeing animals generally followed routes which they
knew would allow them efficient progress. Since established gibbon
groups possess such escape routes in every part of their home
range, they mostly fled in single file.
While the withdrawing gibbon usually moved to some
other part of its home range, where another activity was soon
resumed, the route of the fleeing gibbon led as a rule to resp.
through central parts of its home range; after flight, the gibbon
remained quiet for several more minutes in an attitude of heightened
vigilance.
The flight behaviour of an individual was not necessarily
contagious; other group members reacted first of all with alarm
behaviour and fled only if they themselves had also discovered
the man.
Flight was the alternative reaction of gibbons to
harassing (s. below); in no case, during one and the same encounter,
did both types of reaction occur.
Flight was the typical reaction of non-established
gibbons, but it frequently also occurred in established, territorial
animals.
d. Harassing
The harassing of man showed basically the same characteristics
as the harassing of leopards: all individuals of the gibbon group
were involved; no call coordination within the group could be
noted; the animals were almost constantly in motion in the area
above the intruder; single short advances of one individual to
a lower level occurred.
The end phase in the harassing of man was different
however from that in the harassing of leopards (Corresponding
to the different behaviour of the two types of enemy; in all
observed cases man reacted contrary to the leopard - not by leaving
the area but by staying and observing the display of the gibbons.):
Occasionally - after several minutes of harassing
- one of the group members quietly left the place. The remaining
animals continued to harass, but also soon withdrew, one after
the other. They often took different directions and only gathered
again in a remoter part of the forest to form a loose group.
There they resumed their normal activities.
From the withdrawal of the first to that of the last
group member, several minutes might pass. The average duration
of harassing of man was 16 minutes (7-24; n = 8).
In one case a female was observed,
for the duration of harassing, to «deposit» her infant
in a high tree some 50 meters away. There it remained quietly
until - during the withdrawal of the group - it was picked up
by its mother again and carried away.
Only few gibbon groups reacted to the presence of
man with harassing, and they were invariably established, territory-owning
groups.
This points to the existence of a correlation between
the ownership of a territory and the readiness to react with
harassing: Apparently, harassing requires a certain measure of
«self-assurance» which only owners of territories
possess.
Territory-owning groups also perform screaming behaviour,
in which all members participate, during border conflicts with
neighbouring gibbon groups. Here it serves as display behaviour
and - in connection with the directed aggressive behaviour of
the adult males - to reinforce territorial boundaries (s. 7.5.1.).
Analogous to the border-conflict screaming, harassing
of predators may also represent display behaviour with the aim
of intimidating the predator and possibly driving him out of
the territory. (There is also a certain similarity between the
directed aggressive behaviour of the adult males during the border
conflict screaming and the exploratory advances - shown mainly
by the adult males - when harassing predators.)
In Ujung Kulon/Gunung Honje Reserve
it was noted that also those gibbon groups, which had reacted
with harassing during the first 2-3 encounters with the observer,
fled immediately during subsequent encounters.
Apparently the reaction of man (remaining
in the area, observing) provides - in contrast to that observed
in the leopard (leaving the area) - a negative feedback and leads
finally to a change in the type of reaction of the gibbon.
From this it may be deduced why various
established gibbon groups - already in their first encounters
with the observer - reacted with flight: Presumably, in local
populations, former experiences with man are passed on and later
determine their reaction towards him.
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